Feminist Theories in Social Work

Feminist Theories in Social Work This research considers the application of feminist thought in social work practise.   Specific areas of consideration include the gap from social workers’ personal acceptance of feminist constructs and their use of such constructs in daily practise, the effects of perpetuation of hegemonic gender roles by social workers, and domestic violence victims perceptions of the effectiveness of social work based on the perspectives of their social workers as considered above.   This research further describes a focus group of college social work students who are also domestic violence victims. It records their perceptions of social workers’ worldviewsand the impact of such on service.   Conclusions include that there is asignificant gap between the understanding or acceptance of feministconstructs amongst social workers and its application in daily fieldpractise, that social workers are often likely to perpetuate hegemonicgender roles, and because of such perpetuation view domestic violencesituations as individual occurrences rather than part of a greatersocietal pattern of oppression, and that domestic violence survivorsfeel best served when work with them uses a feminist theoreticalframework. INTRODUCTION Feminism and social work have been associated for many years; however,although many social workers personally espouse working from a feministperspective, the systems of social work still favour work from atraditional or patriarchal perspective.   This research, therefore,seeks to first consider findings from previous study regarding thisphenomenon and the theoretical frameworks for both social work andfeminist thought.   In this light of information gleaned from thesefindings, it became apparent that hegemonic gender roles, a commontopic of feminist research, play a relevant part in work with survivorsof domestic violence.   Specifically, domestic violence survivors areoften directed, either explicitly or implicitly, that their situationis personal and should be considered and dealt with from a personal andpathological perspective rather than applying the tenets of feministthought that view such situations as manifestations of structural andpower problems in our greater society .This study then seeks to document whether this gap between social worktheory supportive of feminist worldviews and social work application ofpractise exists, and if so, how prevalent a gap it is.   This isaccomplished through use of a focus group of college students, all ofwhom have taken at least one course in social work theory and arethemselves domestic violence survivors who have been served, towhatever level of quality, by social workers.   Discussions within thefocus group involved ideas of gender roles and social worker advocacyof hegemonic gender roles, whether explicit or implicit.   The focusgroup then built on this foundation to consider group participants’experiences with social workers and whether they presented anindividual / pathological perspective of domestic violence, or whetherthey presented a perspective that consider the wider influence ofsociety and its systems.   This was further related to the effect ofsuch perceptions on the understanding of and service to groupparticipants at the time of intervention. LITERATURE REVIEW Feminism has emerged in the past thirty years as a viableworldview.   Dietz (2000), quoting Bunch (1980), defined feminism asâ€Å"transformational politics that aims at the dismantling of allpermanent power hierarchies in which one category of humans dominatesor controls another category of humans† (372).   â€Å"In the feminist andempowerment traditions, the personal is political, and individualchange and social change are seen as interdependent† (Deitz 2000,372).   Feminism contends it is not adequate to simply include women inthe world’s political and power systems, as these were designed by andfor men and therefore favour a highly masculinised mechanism forresponding to issues and require women working within these systems todo the same (Scott 1988, Moylan 2003).   Simply including women is notenough; society must give women’s experiences equal time andconsideration, eventually recasting the very meanings of the topics itconsiders (Scott 1988) .   Rather, feminism argues women must be engagedin both the system development and decision-making processes that shapeour society (Moylan 2003).   Consequently, one area where feminism has particularly challengedtraditional views is in the area of gender roles.   For example,Dominelli and McLeod (1989) examine the way in which social problemsare defined, recognising gender as particularly important inunderstanding client groups, and stress egalitarian relationshipsbetween therapists and clients.   Gender is also an importantconsideration of social work due to the patriarchal society that stilldominates most of our world.   This power framework rests on a basis ofhegemonic masculinity (Cohn and Enloe 2003).   Connell (1995) createdthe term ‘hegemonic masculinity’ to describe the valued definition ofmanhood in a society.   He argues that whilst there are multiplepossible masculinities in a culture, only one or a few are most valuedor considered ideal (Conn ell 1995).   This gender definition isconstructed both in relation to femininity and to other, subordinatedmasculinities, and is used to justify both men’s domination of women,and the hegemonically masculine man’s power over other men (Cohn andWeber 1999).Whilst women are increasingly being included in world systems, thesystems themselves still were designed for and operate by and for men.  Therefore, women who participate within the system must do so from maleparadigm, even if it is sometimes at odds with their own preferencesfor how to go about dealing with a situation (Cohn and Enloe 2003).Feminism historically is a â€Å"critique of male supremacy, the belief thatgender order was socially constructed and could not be changed† (Cott1989,205).   Masculinity is often defined as what is not feminine, andfemininity as what is not masculine, although understanding thedynamics of one requires considering both the workings of the other andthe relationship and overlap between the two (Cohn and Enloe 2003).  Masculine definitions are often based on strength, domination andviolence, whilst feminine on weakness, nurturing, compassion andpassitivity (Rabrenovic and Roskos 2001).   The result is pressure onmen adhering to a hegemonic definition of masculinity to view forms ofaddressing conflict other than a physical or masculine response asfeminine and a threat to their manhood (Moylan 2003).   The popular concept of gender holds that masculinity and femininityare unchanging expressions based on the chromosomal male and femalebodies (Butler 1990).   â€Å"Gender is assumed to be ‘hard-wired,’ at leastin part† (Hawkesworth 1997).   Masculine actions and desires for men andfeminine actions and desires for women alone are normal, thesemasculine and feminine traits are not a matter of choice, and allindividuals can be classified as one or the other (Hawkesworth 1997).  However, whilst our society men are considered strong and dominant, andwomen passive and nurturing, â€Å"the meanings of male and female bodiesdiffer from one culture to another, and change (even in our ownculture) over time† (Connell 1993, 75).   For example, there have beenâ€Å"periods in Western history when the modern convention that mensuppress displays of emotion did not apply at all, when men wereeffusive to their male friends and demonstrative about their feelings†(Connell 1993, 75).   â€Å"Masculinities and feminities are constructed oraccomplished in social processes such as child rearing, emotional andsexual relationships, work and politics† (Connell 1993, 75).Feminism, however, contends gender is a constructed by each culture,and as a social practice involves the incorporation of specificsymbols, which support or distort human potential (Hawkesworth 1997).  Ã‚  Gender is created through â€Å"discursively constrained performative acts,†and the repetition of these acts over time cr eates gender for theindividual in society (Butler 1990, x).   People learn to â€Å"act† likewomen or men are supposed to; women are taught to behave in a femininemanner, men are taught to act in a masculine manner.   This is oftenreinforced by authority figures, such as social workers.   Barnes (2003)cites a number of studies which find social workers often assume theâ€Å"disciplinary gaze† of notions of â€Å"what and how to be woman,†perpetuating traditional gender roles (149).  Ã‚   â€Å"Armed with rigid codesof gender appropriate behaviors, social workers often sought toregulate and mediate women’s interactions with the social, economic,and political world† (Barns 2003, 149).Feminism and social work share a number of similarities.   Both believeâ€Å"in the inherent worth and dignity of all persons, the value of processover product, the appreciation of unity-diversity, the importance ofconsidering the person-in- environment, and a commitment to personalempowerment and active participation in society as a means to bringabout meaningful social change† (Baretti 2001, 266-267).   Similarly,both feminism and social work address multiple approaches to handlingsituations, challenging the institutionalized oppression common in manypower structures and supporting â€Å"the reconceptualization andredistribution of that power† (Baretti 2001, 267).It follows that one impact of feminism on social work practise is theconsideration of issues from a societal rather than personalperspective.   For example, this might include viewing a domesticviolence situation not from the perspective that the family isdysfunctional, but from the perspective of the society that created thefamily.   The psychology-based focus of clinical social work â€Å"oftenleads to individualizing social problems, rather than to viewing themas the result of relations of power, primarily oppression and abuse†(Deitz 2000, 369).   As such, individuals experiencing such difficultiesare â€Å"taught† that their particular experiences are inappropriate,rather than addressing the systems that created the difficulties in thefirst place (Deitz 2000, 369).   Dominelli and McLeod (1989) re-evaluate social work practice from afeminist perspective, considering the functions of social work such astherapy, community interaction, and policy making not from apathological standpoint but from one of defined roles endorsed bysocietal conditions.   As such, they contend that working from afeminist perspective allows the social worker to address the causes ofsocial issues, rather than the symptoms played out in individual’slives (Dominelli and McLeod 1989).One area of difference in social work practise between those operatingfrom a feminist framework and a traditional framework is the concept ofdistance.   Traditionally, the â€Å"patriarchal bias against relationalityand connection† is intended to lead to â€Å"connection without harm, lovewithout power abuse, touching without sexual abuse in psychotherapy†(Deitz 2000, 377).   Unfortunately, in practise it often results inâ€Å"power over† relationships where those receiving services feel â€Å"lessthan† those providing them.   â€Å"Healing happens when someone feels seen,heard, held, and empowered, not when one is interpreted, held at adistance, and pathologized† (Deitz 2000, 377). Deitz (2000) finds thatsocial workers often institutionalize a â€Å"power over† stance fromprofessional training and discourse that constructs the identities ofclients as somehow disordered, dysfunctional or impaired.   â€Å"Whetherbetween parents and children; physicians and patients; social workersand consumers of services; Whites and Blacks; or heterosexuals andlesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgendered persons, power overrelationships give the dominant partners or group the right to definethe mean ings of subordinates’ experiences (including their resistance)and thus their opportunities for self-affirmation† (Deitz 2000,373).This creates professional relationships that ignore theenvironmental, historical, and social contexts of the problem, discountpeople’s strengths and resilience in assessment and intervention, andlead â€Å"to the objectification of people as diagnoses, rather than toempowerment† (Deitz 2000, 370).   â€Å"The keys to empowerment in feministmicro practice are reconnection and transformation through politicalactivity; survivors of oppression and abuse experience reconnectionthrough relationships based on mutuality, collaboration, andtrustworthiness† (Deitz 2000, 376).Theories from social work, psychology, and particularly developmentalpsychology describe empowerment as primarily a process, with thepersonal transformation of the individual becoming empowered at itsfoundation (Carr 2003, 8).   Barriers to empowerment and problems ofdisenfranchisement caused by powerlessness are primarily political,rather than psychological.   Powerlessness is defined as the inabilityto effectively manage one’s emotions, knowledge, skills, or resources;it is â€Å"derived from the absence of external supports and the existenceof ontological â€Å"power blocks† that become incorporated into a person’sdevelopment† (Carr 2003, 13).   As such, many survivors also work toreconnect to others in their communities, often seeking politicalactivity that â€Å"emphasizes the empowerment of others, such as byorganizing Take Back the Night marches or speak-outs, volunteering forcrisis hot lines, seeking legislative changes, or becoming socialworkers or human service professionals† (Deitz 2000, 376).For example, feminist work with abuse survivors â€Å"emphasizes therelationship between abuse and oppressive social relations (Deitz 2000,374).   On the other hand, the dominant clinical socia l work approach tooppression and abuse relocates the problem of oppression in victims.Psychological theories are typically employed, which â€Å"locates pathologyin individuals, rather than in oppressive relationships and systems,and considers the long-term effects of oppression to be symptoms ofindividual pathology† (Deitz 2000, 374).   Unfortunately, whilst manysocial workers have been exposed to or even personally supportoperating from a feminist framework, the systems in which they workprevent them from actively utilising feminist insight in their dailypractise.   RESEARCH PLAN This research seeks to study the prevalence and impact of traditionaland feminist practitioner constructs from the perspective of thoseserved.   Specifically, a focus group study will be conducted with agroup of college students, all of whom are currently studying socialwork and therefore have some concept regarding social work practice,feminist and traditional worldviews.   In addition, all students in thefocus group will have experienced domestic violence and have beenprovided the services of a social worker in some form during theirteenage years.Three areas of discussion will be undertaken by the group.   These willbe provided to individual group participants in writing several daysbefore the group in order for students to have time to consider whatthey would like to share regarding their opinions and own experiences.  The first group activity will involve creating definitions ofâ€Å"masculine† and â€Å"feminine† from the perspective of a typical socialwork er based on the students’ teenage experiences.   Students will thenbe asked to discuss where, if at all, they personally feel they andtheir family members who were involved in the domestic violencesituation(s) â€Å"fit† regarding these preconceived definitions.   It isanticipated some students will have been uncomfortable with societalconstraints they or their family experienced as teenagers.   As all arestudying social work, they are also anticipated to make moreconnections between societal power issues, hegemonic gender roles, andtheir influence on domestic violence than a focus group without suchbackground.   The third area of discussion will centre on how thestudents’ perceptions of their social worker(s) understanding of genderroles influenced their and their families reception of adequateservice. The researcher will both tape record and take notes on the groupdiscussions.   Data gathered from the group will then be compiled andanalysed.   In a ddition, students from the focus group will be given theoption to write a response to the group activity, if they so desire.  These will be further included in the group data. METHODOLOGY Data collection involved four means.   Prior to the group starting,each participant was given a questionnaire (see Appendix 3) to gatherbasic demographic information.   The questionnaire also asked for abrief summary of their abusive situation.   Regarding data collection ofthe group proceedings, as described above the focus group session wastape-recorded and the researcher took notes to supplement the recordingof group discussion.   The recorded sessions were then transcribed intoprint form, with research notes added in at the chronologicallyappropriate points of the transcription to provide a more completewritten overview of the focus group discussion.   In addition, groupparticipants had an option to write a response the group to be includedin the group data.   Four participants wrote responses, which wereconsidered with the group data following analysis of the focus groupdiscussion.   Participants were provided with the three areas of groupdiscussion several days pr ior to the actual focus group meeting.   Theywere not given any directions or guidance regarding the optionalwritten responses to the group activity.Data analysis first involved dividing and coding group data.   Responsesto the first topic of discussion were divided into three categories:  those representing a traditional worldview, those representing afeminist worldview, and those that did not clearly represent eitherworldview.   From these groupings, overall findings regarding theworldviews typically experienced by the group participants weresummarised.   This was then further compared with the definitions oftraditional gender roles identified by the group.Data from the second topic of discussion were also broken down intothose representing a traditional worldview, those representing afeminist worldview, and those that did not clearly represent eitherworldview.   It was important to then note participant perceptions andemotional responses to these codings, and in which worldview groupingthey and their families were reported to feel best served andempowered.   Data from the specific discussion regarding service were then similarlyanalysed, and combined with previous findings to present a picture ofthe impact of traditional versus feminist worldviews on social workpractise, emphasising work with teenage domestic violence survivors andtheir understanding of gender roles in society.   It was anticipated at the conclusion of such research, a view could beasserted as to whether feminist perspective has a significant impact onthe practise of social work as it is currently undertaken and whetherthis impact, if any, leads to improved service.As the focus group involved a relatively small number of participants(nine total) and data from their interactions were primarilyqualitative in nature, it was decided not to perform any complexstatistical analysis on focus group data.   It was felt that such typesof analysis would neither reveal findings that co uld be consideredstatistically significant nor provide a more accurate understanding ofthe issues under consideration than a more qualitative analyticalapproach.   In consideration of space and relevance portions of thediscussion were used to support conclusions in the findings andanalysis sections of this dissertation, whilst an overall summary ofthe most relevant portions of the discussion are included in Appendix2. IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECT Nine students meeting the criteria laid out in the research planagreed to participate in the focus group.   They were primarilyorganised by one group participant, who had discovered other domesticviolence survivors through classroom discussions and throughparticipation in a survivors’ group in the local community.   All ninestudents were currently studying social work or had taken at least onesocial work course as part of a related course of study, such aseducation or criminal justice.   There were six women and three men,ranging in age from nineteen to twenty-seven.   Racially, seven wereCaucasian, one was Black, and one was Asian.   All present as comingfrom upper working class to middle class backgrounds.   All hadexperienced domestic violence as teenagers, making their experiencesfairly recent and therefore providing a relatively current depiction ofsocial work practise.   Five students (three women, two men) had beenremoved from their biological parents at s ome point during theirteenage years.   All had been involved in interventions into the familyby a social worker representing either a government organisation, or inthe case of one woman, a local church.   Some of the participants previously knew each other and were somewhataware of each other’s experiences, which should be considered in groupanalysis.   Five regularly participated in a survivors’ support group inthe community.   One man and one woman were cousins.   In addition, twoof the men had known each other as teenagers from intervention throughthe school system.Jennifer, a twenty-four year-old Caucasian woman, was chosen to be themoderator, as she had been the one who had assisted the researcher byarranging for most of the participants to become involved in thestudy.   The group then moved almost immediately into discussion of thetopics provided.   The group had been provided a whiteboard for its use,which Jennifer implemented to organise individua l comments and ideas.  It is surmised that the easy manner with which the group undertook thediscussion was based on the fact that they were all students andtherefore used to having study groups, group discussions, and the like,and that all of them had at least publicly shared their experiencespreviously, either as part of a classroom discussion or survivors’group, or both, and were therefore more comfortable in engaging in suchdiscussion than might be typical for a focus group dealing with suchexperiences. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS The first finding of this research is that the majority of socialworkers in service or domestic violence survivors to not consistentlyemploy feminist constructs in practise, despite the likelihood ofhaving been exposed to such constructs.   This manifested itself inthree significant ways.   First, families were overwhelming dealt withas individuals with problems.   That is, the abuser was described asmaking poor choices or having some type of pathological issues that ledto his or her decision to abuse (in one participant’s family, bothparents were abusive).   As such, the abuser was described from apsychoanalytical standpoint by the social worker(s), and his or herbehaviour labelled as individually deviant.   The survivors of the domestic violence situations, particularly themothers, as the majority of abusers from the groups’ experiences weremale family members or boyfriends of the mother, were also reported tobe consistently dealt with from an individual per spective.   In thissense, their behaviour was also reported to be categorised by thesocial workers involved as unhealthy, pathological, and coming fromsome sort of unresolved personal issues, such as low self-esteem.   Inthe case of only one participant did the social workers involved ineither intervention or therapy consistently relate the domesticviolence situation to broader issues of oppression, societal powerstructures and the related hegemonic gender roles, or patriarchal normsof society.   It is of note that this participant received service froma progressive women-helping-women organisation, rather than atraditional government-organised social work programme.  Group participants also repeatedly described their family situationsas unhealthy, and they certainly were, but from the perspective thatboth the abuser and abused were reacting or displaying emotioninappropriately, rather than that the motivation or norming behind thebehaviour was at fault.   For example, Tre nt described his mother asdrawn to violent, alcoholic men.   â€Å"She always seemed to go for theseguys that didn’t know how to express anything except by breaking stuff,yelling, hitting, you know.†Ã‚   His further descriptions of his mothers’boyfriends indicated an assumption that if these men had been raisedwith or taught proper means of dealing with their frustrations andemotions, the abuse to him and his mother would have been lessened oreliminated.   This idea was supported by at least one social worker, whosuggested counselling for Trent, his mother, and the then boyfriend asone possible way of addressing the abusive situation.Several participants did bring feminist theory and thought into groupdiscussion, pointing out, for example, that dominance or aggression bymen in any form was unhealthy, and questioning why it was only seen asunhealthy by most of the social workers they had encountered, and byothers they knew in the community, when physical viol ence was actuallyinvolved.   There was a related discussion, albeit brief, about the unwillingnessof neighbours, relatives, and others in the community, such as membersof the same church, to intervene in the domestic violence situation.  Participants indicated their perception that whilst this was often dueto a fear of getting involved or knowing how to help the situation,there were repeated occurrences in everyone’s experience where anunwillingness to intervene derived from others’ implications that theman of the house had some right to choose the way in which thehousehold operated, or that he had a right to discipline his wife /girlfriend and children as he saw fit.   Wendy reports hearing an auntstate â€Å"Well, its his family, their kids, she wants to stay with him,†and dismiss the ongoing violence as therefore an acceptable familylifestyle, or at least one in which none of the rest of the familyshould be expected to intervene.   Participants then a cknowledged thisand several other systemic situations that perpetuated their abuse,such as reluctance of authority figures to continue questioning wheninitially told nothing was wrong, and unwillingness of police tointervene repeatedly.   Similarly, regarding gender roles, discussion indicated a belief bymost participants that their social workers believed a traditionalstereotype of what was appropriate behaviour for a man and a woman, andthat these behaviours were different.   There were reports of acceptanceof physical response as an appropriate masculine reaction, but thelevel of physical response not being considered appropriate.   Maleparticipants were encouraged to talk about their experiences, butreport never being given permission to express fear, or an emotionalresponse such as crying.   One male participant reported starting to cryas part of a group experience, and being discouraged rather thanencouraged to continue, whilst female members of the group were allowedt o and even supported in such emotional expression.   There were similarreports of various hegemonically feminine expressions, such as crying,fear, and nurturing behaviours, being supported and encouraged bysocial workers for male family members but not female, as well as anacceptance or assumption of weakness on the part of adult females whochose to remain in an abusive situation.The discussion then moved to the effect of traditional and feministperspective on social work service.   Participants overwhelminglyreported feeling better served when social workers sought to empowerthem and their families.   This did usually involve practise of methodsderived from a feminist view, such as the use of reflective journalingand support groups, as well as encouragement from the social workers tothe mother that she could, indeed, survive and prosper outside thedomestic violence situation, that she did have the inner reserves toaddress the situation and move to a healthier lifestyle, and t hatsocietal pressure to be with a man, either as a romantic partner or asa father / father-figure for children was not necessary for asuccessful life.   Participants also report feeling personally empoweredby such encouragement, and therefore able to support their mothers inattempts to leave relationships.From their own study in social work theory, focus group participantswere able to briefly discuss the ramifications of the patriarchalsocietal power structure on a woman’s decision to stay in a violentsituation.   One issue brought up included the perception that societywill view a woman as a failure and undesirable if she does not have aromantic relationship with a man in her life.   A number of womenparticipants in the group reported feeling similar pressure to maintaina romantic relationship with a man in their life, regardless of theirother commitments or interests, and an expectation that they would notbe successful women if they did not ultimately get married and havechildren.   When questioned by other participants, the three maleparticipants reported not feeling such pressures.   Another issue raisedwas the mothers’ perception that they needed a father figure tosuccessfully raise children, particularly boys.   This was perpetuatedin the life experiences of group participants even though the menoccupying these roles were viewed by the male participants asdestructive, rather than constructive, influences.   Issues of supportin disciplining children and managing household operations were alsoindicated, as was the financial support provided by the batterer.   Thegroup indicated all these issues were societal, rather than individual,and lack of addressing of them affected the effectiveness of the socialservices they had received.Overall, the participants were generally positive about at least onesocial worker with whom they had a relationship during their teenageyears.   Participants typically felt feeling most encouraged and bestserved by those social workers who did not present themselves as beingdistant or above the participants and their families, and who did notoverly emphasise their family’s issues from a perspective of individualdysfunction.   These findings indicated that a feminist interactiveconstruct, which avoids â€Å"power over† methods and practise is perceivedto be most effective by domestic violence survivors. RECOMMENDATIONS It is recommended from findings of this study that social workersare first provided greater exposure to and training in feminist methodsand theory as it relates to their practical, day-to-day practise.   Forexample, all participants reported some positive experiences inresponse to reflective methods such as reflective journaling andsurvivor support groups.   Considerations of ways to more greatlyinclude such methods in typical practise are therefore indicated.   Of greater concern are the systems in which social workers operate.  Whilst most of the social workers in these focus group participants’experiences had some familiarity with feminist theory or methods, asindicated by their emphasis on empowerment or use of specificstrategies, there is something within the government-sponsored socialservices structure that prohibits practise truly based on feministtenets.   A sharp contrast was provided by the young woman served at aprogressive, private service, where feminis t theory was the obviousframework on which service was based.   She was by far the most positiveabout her experiences and workers, and reported insights, understandingand empowerment to change not consistently reported by other focusgroup participants.It therefore recommended that more research be pursued as to whatfactors constrain social workers from functioning from a more feministframework.   Issues such as time (many social workers have far morepeople to see and serve than they would like to have, or often feelthey can serve effectively), lack of material resources such asappropriate space, lack of effective training, or discouragement insuch regards from supervisors or others in power.   Specificallyidentifying relevant factors could then form a framework forprogressing with change in social work practise within a typicalgovernment service organisation.It is further recommended that individual social workers consider whatconstraints they persona

The Chrysanthemums’s Character Analysis: Elisa Allen

Tran, Hillary John Steinbeck, â€Å"The Chrysanthemums† Character Analysis: Elisa Allen Elisa Allen is first portrayed as a woman who can take on any job as well as any man but in the end, becomes a woman of submissive femininity. The plot revolves around her journey of realization and conversion to femininity, which conclusively, labels her as a dynamic protagonist. She works in a garden and farms and cultivates just as well as a man and never fails to amaze her husband of her skills.The story starts with her husband asking her to go into town for a nice dinner date night after he goes into the hills with their sun to look for some steers. As her husband goes off with the son, a stranger comes along their ranch and seeks for directions, as he is lost. His wagon cover reveals that he is a repairman for scissors, pans, and all other sorts of tools. He strikes a conversation and seems to be extremely interested in Elisa.However, there is slight tension within their conversation because it is obvious that he is looking for work to feed himself for the night, but she does not want to give in to his marketing scheme. He advertises that he can make any old tool or pan look brand new and it will be of an advantage to Ms. Allen; it is not until he asks for her chrysanthemums as a gift to an old lady friend down the road that Elisa begin to loosen up. Flattered by his praise to her planting work and feeling as if she should owe him something, Elisa digs out some old aluminum stove pots for him to fix.As he is repairing them, she asks him about life on the road and shows that she would love to live like a man despite his comments that it is dangerous for a woman to live like him. She pays him fifty cents and jokes that he might be coming along some new competition on the road because she too, can ring out the dents of any pots and sharpen scissors better than anyone else out there. They say their farewells and Elisa begins to get ready for dinner. She showers and glams up herself for night and her husband compliments her from looking â€Å"nice† to looking â€Å"strong†.She questions when he first says nice because she would rather look strong, as she prefers to be portrayed. This marks her transition from a masculine woman to a woman of femininity. Later, as they ride into town, Elisa asks her husband about the entertainment fights, that do women participate and go watch as well. He answers yes they do and asks if she would like to go although he knows she probably will not enjoy it. She replies no and turns up her collar to weep silently â€Å"like an old woman†.Her weeping symbolizes the end of her transition from a masculine dominant woman to a submissive female. Her transition seems to come from society rejection of the idea that woman are just as good as males. The society of Steinbeck’s story portrays women as not being able to take care of themselves – that they need a man to protect and do hard wor k for them. Ms. Allen knows that she can do work just as well as a man but she is continuously stricken down and discouraged by the comments from her husband and the repairman.She feels that even though she has the skills to prove, she will never be seen as equal to a man because of her gender. She may be a strong woman, but she is not strong enough to rise against society. She can well prove herself to the world that woman can be just like men by riding around in a wagon by herself or participating in a fight, but her chances of proving herself are slimmer than her chances of being taunted and picked on by other males. This realization, is the motor behind her stepping down from an independent female to a submissive old woman. The Chrysanthemums’s Character Analysis: Elisa Allen Tran, Hillary John Steinbeck, â€Å"The Chrysanthemums† Character Analysis: Elisa Allen Elisa Allen is first portrayed as a woman who can take on any job as well as any man but in the end, becomes a woman of submissive femininity. The plot revolves around her journey of realization and conversion to femininity, which conclusively, labels her as a dynamic protagonist. She works in a garden and farms and cultivates just as well as a man and never fails to amaze her husband of her skills.The story starts with her husband asking her to go into town for a nice dinner date night after he goes into the hills with their sun to look for some steers. As her husband goes off with the son, a stranger comes along their ranch and seeks for directions, as he is lost. His wagon cover reveals that he is a repairman for scissors, pans, and all other sorts of tools. He strikes a conversation and seems to be extremely interested in Elisa.However, there is slight tension within their conversation because it is obvious that he is looking for work to feed himself for the night, but she does not want to give in to his marketing scheme. He advertises that he can make any old tool or pan look brand new and it will be of an advantage to Ms. Allen; it is not until he asks for her chrysanthemums as a gift to an old lady friend down the road that Elisa begin to loosen up. Flattered by his praise to her planting work and feeling as if she should owe him something, Elisa digs out some old aluminum stove pots for him to fix.As he is repairing them, she asks him about life on the road and shows that she would love to live like a man despite his comments that it is dangerous for a woman to live like him. She pays him fifty cents and jokes that he might be coming along some new competition on the road because she too, can ring out the dents of any pots and sharpen scissors better than anyone else out there. They say their farewells and Elisa begins to get ready for dinner. She showers and glams up herself for night and her husband compliments her from looking â€Å"nice† to looking â€Å"strong†.She questions when he first says nice because she would rather look strong, as she prefers to be portrayed. This marks her transition from a masculine woman to a woman of femininity. Later, as they ride into town, Elisa asks her husband about the entertainment fights, that do women participate and go watch as well. He answers yes they do and asks if she would like to go although he knows she probably will not enjoy it. She replies no and turns up her collar to weep silently â€Å"like an old woman†.Her weeping symbolizes the end of her transition from a masculine dominant woman to a submissive female. Her transition seems to come from society rejection of the idea that woman are just as good as males. The society of Steinbeck’s story portrays women as not being able to take care of themselves – that they need a man to protect and do hard wor k for them. Ms. Allen knows that she can do work just as well as a man but she is continuously stricken down and discouraged by the comments from her husband and the repairman.She feels that even though she has the skills to prove, she will never be seen as equal to a man because of her gender. She may be a strong woman, but she is not strong enough to rise against society. She can well prove herself to the world that woman can be just like men by riding around in a wagon by herself or participating in a fight, but her chances of proving herself are slimmer than her chances of being taunted and picked on by other males. This realization, is the motor behind her stepping down from an independent female to a submissive old woman.

Impact Of Retained Earnings On Share Price - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2858 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? The objective of this research paper is to study the relationship between retained earnings and share price in the Pakistan stock market. For analysis, a sample of 40 listed companies was taken from Karachi stock market. In this research, variables data was taken from the period of 2005-2008. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Impact Of Retained Earnings On Share Price" essay for you Create order Simple Linear Regression technique was used to analyze the relationship between share price and retained earnings. A positive relation was found between retained earning and stock price. This paper supports the fact that retained earning is relevant in determining share price for a sample of firms listed in the Karachi Stock Exchange. As far as my knowledge is concerned, this paper is first to show that corporate earnings is a key driver of stock price change in the Pakistan. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Overview: Earnings and dividends occupied an important role in financial accounting research and finance. It is the most extensively accepted measure of firm performance. Attention was also given to earnings because it is commonly used in evaluating management performance. Perhaps the biggest reason for the attraction to earnings, though, lies with the notion that retained earnings serves as a predictor of future cash flows. Many theories have represented that the accrual earnings represents the best predictor and of future cash flows than the historical cash flows. A companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s existence depends on its ability to make positive cash flows, and research confirmed that share price directly related to an entityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s cash flow prediction. Thus, because earnings of the company are viewed as a key determinant of share price. Mary, Cram and Nelson (2001) found that the systematic ability of earnings can be improved when disaggregated into its major accrual components. One of the components was sales revenue, which unpredictably ignored in the literature as a predictor of share price. The degree of relationship of earnings and cash flow, sales with share price was a aim of this study. Empirical studies indicate that when share prices are related to the current dividends and retained earnings, higher dividends are associated with higher price earning ratio. Graham and Dood assert that the impact of dividend on price is four times that of retained earnings; moreover, the studies of Myron Gorden, David Durand and others indicate that dividend multiplier is several times the retained earning multiplier. A very recent study on this topic has been done by Friend and Puckett for USA they concluded that in general, there is little basis for the view that dividends have an impact on price which is several times that of retained earnings. A firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability to generate cash flow affects the value of its securities, so the ability to assess fu ture cash flow was important for the investment community, both shareholders and creditors. While shareholders may be concerned with the stream of cash flows to perpetuity, many creditors were concerned solely the short term cash generating ability of a company. Problem statement: To investigate the Impact of Retained Earnings, Dividends on Share Price. Hypothesis H1: There is a positive relationship between Retained Earnings and Share Prices. Outline of the Study: Next section 2 is Literature review, section 3, methodology and data collection, section 4 results and summary, section 5 conclusion remarks Definition Retained earnings refers to the portion of net income which is kept by the companies rather than distributed to its owners as dividends. CHAPTER: 2 LITERATURE REVIEW The study relates to examine the relationship of earning with share price. When conservative accounting practices are observed by firms, the quality of its earnings can be affected by the changes in the amount of its investments. Increase in investment decreases reported earnings and creates reserves. Dropping investment releases those reserves and earnings increase. If there is temporary change in investment then earnings are depressed or inflate temporarily, it means that investment is not a fine indicator of future earnings. This paper contributes to the research on how the quality of earnings is affected by accounting methods. We define the term to mean that reported earnings, before unusual items that are recognized on the income statement, is of good quality if it is a good sign of future earnings. Thus we consider good earnings to be sustainable earnings, as referred to in financial analysis (Mulford and Comiskey,1996). When an accounting treatment produces weak earnin gs, we consider those unsustainable earnings to be of poor quality. Changes in dividends informs the investors about the determination of past earnings changes. The determination of earnings is the extent to which an unpredicted change in earnings revises hope of future earnings for the periods in the same way as the unexpected change. This uncertainty about the of earnings is determined as later earnings announcements for following quarters provide additional information. Investors assessments of the persistence of past earnings can be revised by the change in dividends because the managers are unwilling to increase (decrease) dividends unless earnings increase (decrease) are determined. We examine whether investors recognize a change in dividends as a sign about the determination of past earnings changes by examining the statistical relation between the market reaction changes in dividends and recent past earnings changes. Healy and Palepus (1988) stated that dividend cha nges managerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s private information about future earnings changes. They found a positive relation between abnormal returns and following changes in earnings. Financial statement analysis advocates examining the accrual and cash basis components of current earnings for the purpose of predicting future earnings. The nature of the information contained in the cash basis and accrual and components of earnings and the degree to which this information is reflected in share prices. The results specify that earnings show attributable to the accrual component of earnings exhibits lower persistence than earnings show attributable to the cash basis component of earnings. The firms with comparatively high (low) levels of accruals experience negative (positive) future stock returns that are determined around future earnings announcements. Although there is unreliable evidence that stock prices respond positively to firms meeting expectations. We observe whether there is a mark et return to meeting current period earnings expectations, and whether any such return reflects the implications for following earnings of meeting expectations in the current period or shows a distinct market premium. It seems reasonable to say that there is a wide agreement that either favorable earnings or dividend announcements can persuade positive abnormal stock returns. The effect of earnings announcements on share price changes has been recognized by Ball and Brown, Foster, Watts and Rendleman et al. The effect of dividend announcement was first highlighted by Pettit. Miller and Scholes , in a study focused primarily on dividends and taxes as a result they found significant evidence of a dividend declaration effect. Figures of earnings can be manipulated by accounting practices, and so may be interpreted with uncertainty by the investment community (Kaplan and Roll ). Similarly, dividend declarations are only a crude way to communicate information to capital markets. While bo th dividend and earnings data have been shown to influence share performance that the capital market would be interested in the consistency by earnings and dividend announcements. This might show the way to a validation effect on share prices. Confirmation from a collection of studies shows that equity value is related to accounting earnings (e.g., Ball and Brown 1968; Barth et al. 1992). However, in more reasonable settings with market imperfections, accounting methods can provide complementary information about book value and earnings. Balance sheet information provides net worth of resources of the firm. These information are based mostly on historical market prices and is therefore mainly independent of the achievement with which the firm currently employs its resources. On the other hand earnings from the financial statement provide a measure of value which reflects that how much of the resources are being employed by the firm from this earnings. There is a relationship b etween insider trading and the information captured by annual earnings for a large sample of firms. Insider trading changes the annual unexpected earnings. Insider buying interactively confirms the positive information captured by unexpected positive earnings and this communication reduces the noise in unexpected earnings. The result with regard to the adverse information captured by the group with insider selling and negative unexpected earnings is similar but less prominent. The examination also suggests that insider buying and selling conveys information not fully captured by current earnings. From the Ball and Brown (1968) several studies have documented that unexpected changes in earnings are related with unexpected changes in firm. Their work recognize that market agents learn about earnings and valuation related events from many information sources throughout the year. The financial reports issued by companies are the output of a fairly complete measurement process which a lso involves some preventive recognition and valuation rules. Hence, annual accounting earnings, at the time of its declaration, may contain a summary of some of the information already communicated to the market by more timely non financial sources. Graham and Dood attempted to study the role of the factors which influence share prices of joint stock companies. One naturally feels that the price of the shares of a company at a point of time will be governed by its future growth potential and past earnings. The past earnings of the firm is measured by the dividends and the price will be determined by dividend payout. Future growth potential or the forthcoming earning of the firm is indicated by the current years retained earning; so, the price of the share at a point of time will be governed by the dividend and retained earnings of the firm. The studies indicate that when share prices are related to the retained earnings and current dividends, higher price earning ratio are associat ed with higher dividends. Graham and Dood assert that the impact of dividend declaration on share price is four times that of retained earnings. Several factors influence the fluctuations of share prices. Among them, corporate earnings stand greatest in the minds of speculators and investors. It is a common belief for many people that current earnings and prices of common stocks move in strongly related and that changes in current earnings largely explanation for the fluctuations of share prices. CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS Retianed earning has significant influence on the determination of share prices. To that degree investment in shares show to be growth oriented. Graham and DL Dood ;(1934);Scurity Analysis, USA. The analysis utilized Simple Linear Regression. The most basic test involved regressing the dependent variable Share Prices against the independent variables Retained Earnings. This provided a basic test of the relationship between Share Prices and Retained Earnings. The following regression was adopted: y=a+bx where y is the value of the dependent scale variable Share Prices b is the value of the coefficient, x is the value of the predictor Retained Earnings a Constant The expectation was that the Retained Earnings would be positively related to Share Prices. That is, increases in retained earnings the firm will be associated with an increase in the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s stock price. By contrast, firms with relatively higher earnings volatility or h igher leverage will tend to display higher price volatility. DATA All the firms that were listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange from 2005 to 2008 have been taken for the research purpose. The annual data of these firms were taken from the various issues of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Balance Sheet Analysisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? published by State Bank of Pakistan. Price data has been taken from the annual reports and other annual publications of Karachi Stock Exchange. Data of daily price were taken from the ZHV Securities Karachi. All of those firms taken into account which has no missing information of data of variable that was included in research. Sample size A sample of 38 companies of Textile Industry listed in Karachi stock exchange from the period of 200-2008. Research Model developed Y= a + bx SP= (constant) + RE Statistical Technique Simple Linear Regression was used. CHAPTER 4: RESULTS FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA ANOVAb Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 13595.856 1 13595.856 21.319 .000a Residual 95659.112 150 637.727 Total 109254.968 151 a. Predictors: (Constant), Retained Earnings b. Dependent Variable: Share Prices The ANOVA Table suggested that Retained Earnings explained significant amount of the variance in the Share Price. In above in model table p0.05 and therefore can concluded that the regression was statistically significant. F-statistic was a ratio of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“sample variancesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? the larger the F-ratio the more variability in the dependent variable in that case it 21.319 which quite larger F-ratio which shown that variation in share prices are largely by predictors. Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .353a .124 .119 25.25327 a. Predictors: (Constant), Retained Earnings The capital à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Rà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? in this table is coefficient of correlation which is .353 which shown that there was positive correlation between dependent and independent variables. The results of model summary suggested that 12.4% variation in dependent variable (Share Price) was due to the Independent variables (Retained Earnings) Adjusted R Square was a adjustment of R Square that adjusts for the number of explanatory conditions in a model. Unlike R Square, the adjusted R Square increases only if the new term improves the model more than would be predicted by chance. Adjusted R Square showed that variation in share price is 11.9% by predictors after adjusting the error terms. Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 27.108 2.233 12.138 .000 Retained Earnings .073 .016 .353 4.617 .000 a. Dependent Variable: Share Prices Share Price=27.108+ 0.073(Retained Earnings). The constant was also significant since p=0.000 which showed that when all independent variables were zero than the value of the Share Price was 27.108. List of References Adam S. Koch and Amy X. Sun (2004); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Dividend Changes and the Persistence of past Earnings Changesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Journal of Finance, Vol. 59, pp. 2093-2116. Alex Kane, Young Ki Lee, Alan Marcus (1984); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Earnings and Dividend Announcements: Is There a Corroboration Effectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? The Journal of Finance, Vol. 39, pp.1091-1099 Barbara A. Lougee and Carol A. Marquardt (2004); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Earnings Informativeness and Strategic Disclosure, An Empirical Examination of Pro FormaEarningsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 79, pp 769-795. Baruch Lev and Doron Nissim (2004); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?Taxable Income, Future Earnings, and Equity Valuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 79, pp. 1039-1074. Daniel W. Collins, Morton Pincus, Hong Xie (1999); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Equity Valuation and Negative Earnings: The Role of Book Value of Equityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 74, pp. 29-6. David C. Burgstahler and Ilia D. Dichev (1997 ); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Earnings, Adaptation and Equity Valueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 72, pp.187-215. James R. Frederickson and Jeffrey S. Miller (2004); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The Effects of Pro Forma Earnings Disclosures on Analysts and Nonprofessional InvestorsEquity Valuation Judgmentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 79, pp. 667-686. Jeremy J. Siegel (1992); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Equity Risk Premia, Corporate Profit Forecasts, and Investor Sentiment around the Stockà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Journal of Business, Vol. 65, pp. 557-570. Messod D. Beneish and Mark E. Vargus (2002); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Insider Trading, Earnings Quality, and Accrual Mispricingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 77, pp. 755-791. Nicholas Molodovsky (1955); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Stock Prices and Current Earningsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Analysts Journal, Vol. 11, pp. 83-94. Paul A. Griffin (1976); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Competitive Information in the Stock Market An Empirical Study of Earnings, Dividends and Analysts Forecastsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Journal of Finance, Vol. 31, pp. 631-650. Richard G. Sloan (1996); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Do Stock Prices Fully Reflect Information in Accruals and Cash Flows about Future Earningsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 71, pp. 289-315. Ron Kasznik and Maureen F. McNichols (2002); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Does Meeting Earnings Expectations Matter. Evidence from Analyst Forecast Revisions andShare Pricesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 40, pp. 727-759. Stephen H. Penman and Theodore Sougiannis (1997); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The Dividend Displacement Property and the Substitution of Anticipated Earnings for Dividends in Equity Valuationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 72, pp. 1-21. Stephen H. Penman and Xiao-Jun Zhang (2002); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Accounting Conservatism, the Quality of Earnings, and Stock Returnsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol. 77, pp. 237-264 Steven Allen and Ramachandran Ramanan (1995); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“In sider Trading, Earnings Changes, and Stock Pricesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; Management Science, Vol. 41, pp. 653-668. S. C. Srivastava (1968); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Share Prices, Dividends and Earningsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 3, pp. M89+M91+M93-M95. Victor Niederhoffer and Patrick J. Regan (1972); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Earnings Changes, Analysts Forecasts and Stock Pricesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; Financial Analysts Journal, Vol. 28, pp. 65-71. William Kinney, David Burgstahler, and Roger Martin (2002); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Earnings Surprise Materiality as Measured by Stock Returnsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 40, pp. 1297-1329. Mulford, C., and E. Comiskey(1996); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Financial Warningsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; New York. Nissim, D., and S. Penman(2001); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“ Ratio analysis and equity valuation: From research to practiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; Review of Accounting Studies, Vol 6, pp. 109-154. Healy, Paul M., and Krishna G. Palepu (1988); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“ Earnin gs information conveyed by dividend initiations and omissionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; Journal of Financial Economics, Vol 21, pp. 149-175. R. Ball and P. Brown (1968); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“An Empirical Evaluation of Accounting Numbersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; Journal of Accounting Research; Vol 6, pp. 159-78. G. Foster (1977); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Quarterly Accounting Data: Time-Series Properties and Predictive Ability Resultsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Accounting Review, Vol 52, pp. 1-20. R. Watts (1978): Systematic Abnormal Returns after Quarterly Earnings Announcements; Journal of Financial Economics, Vol 6, pp. 127-150. R. J. Rendleman, Jr., C. P. Jones, and H. A. Latane (1982); Empirical Anomalies Based on Unexpected Earnings and Importance of Risk Adjustment; Journal of Financial Economics, Vol 10, pp. 269-287. R. R. Pettit (1972); Dividend Announcement, Security Performance, and Capital Market Efficiency; Journal of Finance, Vol 27, pp. 993-1007. M. Miller and M. Scholes (1982); Dividend and Taxes: Empiri cal Evidence; Journal of Political Economy, Vol 90, pp. 1118-141. Benjamin Graham and D L Dood (1934); Security Analysis; New York. Mary E. Barth, Donald P. Cram and Karen K. NelsonSource (2001); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Accruals and the Prediction of Future Cash Flowsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?; The Accounting Review, Vol 76, pp. 27-58.

Why I Decided to Enter the Teaching Profession - 1020 Words

Assignment #3 Why enter teaching profession? It is work –related purpose to enter the Provincial Instructor Diploma Course. I am part-time instructor assistant for Deaf and Hard of Hearing program (DHH) at Vancouver Community College. I have worked with varied students – deaf, hard of hearing, deaf with disabilities. All of those adult students from full diversity of different sector and different religions in existing country. Not only that, some of students are fortunate enough to have already attended schools for the deaf in their home countries, and others may have had no education at all and arrive knowing gestures. Plus, those of whom from different countries and various education backgrounds from beginning to advance level in both American Sign Language and English. I find it challenge to work with deaf immigrant adults. 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